Nonlinear and thermal mechanisms in woofers, headphones, shakers, and other actuators produce signal distortion and limit the acoustic output at high amplitudes. Large signal parameters based on extended transducer modeling and measured by system identification techniques reveal the physical causes, allow an objective assessment of the performance, and give indications for practical improvements. Typical problems are discussed in a case study based on a set of drivers intended for woofer application.:
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https://aes2.org/publications/elibrary-page/?id=9077
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